Hormonal Correlates of Parenting

Oxytocin

An intriguing and relatively recent part of parenting science is related to the hormonal correlates of parenting. We studied associations between basal levels of oxytocin and various aspects of parenting, and we conducted a series of experimental studies on the behavioral and neural effects of intranasally administered oxytocin. Addressing doubts about whether intranasally administered oxytocin actually enters the human brain, our lab was the first to show that oxytocin changes resting state functional connectivity between the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the brainstem, and between the PCC, the cerebellum, and the postcentral gyrus, areas in the brain involved in self-referential processes and understanding others’ mental states. Moreover, we showed in the first randomized trial of its type that fathers become more sensitive in playful interactions with their toddler after intranasal administration of oxytocin. Following this line of research on the neurobiology of parenting, we examined the underlying mechanisms of adults’ intended caregiving responses to cry sounds in an experimental design with adult twins. We found that experimentally manipulated oxytocin levels decreased amygdala activity in response to infant cry sounds, and increased activation in the insula and inferior frontal gyrus pars triangularis, thus reducing activation in the neural circuitry for anxiety and aversion, and increasing activation in regions involved in empathy. Moreover, oxytocin seems to increase the reward value of infant laughter. The effects of oxytocin administration may however be moderated by early childhood experiences (Translational Psychiatry, 2013). In concert with other hormones and neurotransmitters, oxytocin might play a key role in sensitive parenting and the development of attachment.

Hormones and fathers

In a recently started project funded by an ERC Advanced Grant we focus on the hormonal, neural, and behavioral dynamics of fathering through hormonal and behavioral experimental interventions. The aim of the project is to test the hypothesis that fathers’ parenting can be changed by behavioral interventions and that hormonal processes mediate this change – a rather bold hypothesis. Parenting intervention studies hardly ever examine the effects of interventions on parents’ hormonal levels. We hope to bridge this gap with a series of randomized controlled trials (RCT) focusing on a critical phase of parenthood: the transition to having the first baby. Drawing firm conclusions about the neural and hormonal basis of human parenting is critically dependent on RCTs, and we will conduct two types of experiments: (1) within-subject trials, using nasal administration of oxytocin, vasopressin, and a placebo, and (2) between-subject trials, using behavioral interventions aimed at promoting sensitive parenting and physical contact, and examining changes in hormonal levels as potential mechanism. Testing the efficacy of the behavioral experiments in boosting fathers’ protective parenting and participation in caregiving activities will contribute to the practice and support of fathering, with potentially crucial significance for fathers, mothers, children, and society. Examining the hormonal and neural mechanisms is also essential for the development of theory on the interplay between neuroscience and parenting.

Central papers:

  • Thijssen, S., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., de Waal, N., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2024). Neural processing of cry sounds in the transition to fatherhood: Effects of a prenatal intervention program and associations with paternal caregiving. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 164, 107005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107005
  • Witte, A. M., de Moor, M. H. M., Verhees, M. W. F. T., Lotz, A. M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2024). Effects of a baby carrier intervention on fathers’ sensitivity, involvement, and hormonal levels: Follow-up of a randomized controlled study. Parenting, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2024.2366763
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., & Van IJzendoorn, M.H. (2023). Sensitive responsiveness in expectant and new fathers. Current Opinion in Psychology, 50, 101580, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101580
  • Buisman, R.S.M., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., de Waal, N., Kesarlal, A. R., Verhees, M. W. F. T., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2023). Fathers’ sensitive parenting enhanced by prenatal video-feedback: A randomized controlled trial using ultrasound imaging. Pediatric Research, 93, 1024-1030. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-022-02183-9
  • Riem, M. M. E., Witte, A., Lotz, A. M., Cima, M., H. Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J. (2023). Parental protection in fathers with negative caregiving experiences: Heightened amygdala reactivity to infant threatening situations. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 35, 7, 13230.  https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.13230
  • Verhees, M.W.F.T., Lotz, A.M., de Moor, M.H.M., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Fidder, A.A.E.J., Buisman, R.S.M., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J.  (2023). Effects of a Soft Baby Carrier on Fathers’ Behavior and Hormones: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Child and Family Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02678-x
  • Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., De Waal., N., Van IJzendoorn M.H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2022). Development and feasibility of the prenatal video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting for expectant fathers. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 40(4):352-365. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2021.1886258
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2022). Research on fathers: pathways to coming of age. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 60, 332-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.03.006
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Verhees, M. W., Lotz, A. M., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2022). Is paternal oxytocin an oxymoron? Oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, oestradiol and cortisol in emerging fatherhood. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 377(1858), 20210060. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0060
  • De Waal, N., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K, Buisman, RSM, Verhees, MWFT & Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ (2022). The prenatal Video-feedback Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting for expectant fathers (VIPP-PRE): Two case studies. Infant Mental Health Journal, 43 (5), 730-743. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.22006
  • Horstman, L. I., Riem, M. M., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., Lotz, A. M., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2021). Fathers’ involvement in early childcare is associated with amygdala resting-state connectivity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 17, 198-205.
  • Kaźmierczak, M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (2022). Do empathy and oxytocin predict responsiveness to a crying infant simulator in expecting and non-expecting couples? A multilevel study. Attachment & Human Development, 1-21.
  • Lotz AM, Buisman RSM, Alyousefi-van Dijk K, Witte AM, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Verhees MWFT (2022). Exploring the role of endocrine factors in paternal sensitive parenting. Hormones and Behavior, 140, 105118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105118
  • Sinisalo, H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Peltola, M. J. (2022). Hormonal and behavioral responses to an infant simulator in women with and without children. Developmental Psychobiology, 64, e22321. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.22321
  • Vuoriainen, E., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., Huffmeijer, R., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., & Peltola, M.J. (2022). Processing children’s faces in the parental brain: A meta-analysis of ERP studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 136, 104604
  • Witte, AM, Riem, MME, Van der Knaap, N, De Moor, MHM, Van IJzendoorn, MH, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ (2022). The effects of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on fathers’ neural responses to infant crying: A randomized controlled within-subject study, Psychoneuroendocrinology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105731
  • Witte, AM, De Moor, MHM, Majdandžić, M, Verhees, MWFT, Van IJzendoorn, MH, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ (2022). Effects of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on human fathers’ sensitive and challenging parenting: A randomized within-subject controlled trial. Hormones and Behavior, 142, 105175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105175
  • Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., Van der Knaap, N., Buisman, R. S. M., Horstman, L. I., Lotz, A. M., Riem, M. M. E., Schuengel, C., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2021). White matter integrity moderates the relation between experienced childhood maltreatment and fathers’ behavioral response to infant crying. Developmental Psychobiology, 63(5), 1399-1414. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.22058
  • Kaźmierczak M, Pawlicka P, Anikiej-Wiczenbach P, Łada-Maśko AB, Kiełbratowska B, Rybicka M, Kotłowska A, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH. (2021). Empathy and Hormonal Changes as Predictors of Sensitive Responsiveness towards Infant Crying: A Study Protocol. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9):4815. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094815
  • Lotz, A. M., Rijlaarsdam, J., Witteman, J., Meijer, W., van Dijk, K., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2021). Vasopressin and parental expressed emotion in the transition to fatherhood. Attachment and Human Development, 23(3), 257-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2020.1719427
  • Lotz, AM, Verhees, MWFT, Horstman, LI, Riem, MME, Van IJzendoorn, MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ, & Buisman, RSM (2021). Exploring the hormonal and neural correlates of paternal protective behavior to their infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 63, 1358-1369. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.22055
  • Riem, M.M.E., Lotz, A.M., Horstman, L.I., Cima, M., Verhees, M., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., van IJzendoorn, M.H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2021). A soft baby carrier intervention enhances amygdala responses to infant crying in fathers: A randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 132, 105380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105380
  • Verhees, M.W.F.T., van IJzendoorn, M.H., Alyousefi-van Dijk, K., Lotz, A.M., de Waal, N., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2021). Child maltreatment affects fathers’ response to infant crying, not mediated by cortisol or testosterone, Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology, 8, 100083, ISSN 2666-4976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpnec.2021.100083
  • Kaźmierczak, M., Pawlicka, P., Łada-Maśko, A. B., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2020). How well do couples care when they are expecting their first child? Family and dyadic predictors of parental sensitivity in expectant couples. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 1165.
  • Alyousefi-van Dijk K, van ‘t Veer AE, Meijer WM, Lotz AM, Rijlaarsdam J, Witteman J and Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ (2019). Vasopressin differentially affects handgrip force of expectant fathers in reaction to own and unknown infant faces. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 13:105. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00105
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Lotz AM, Alyousefi-van Dijk K, & Van IJzendoorn, MH (2019). The birth of a father: Fathering in the first 1,000 days. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 247-253. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12347
  • Meijer, W.M., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2019). Challenging the challenge hypothesis on testosteron in fathers: a meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 110, 104435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.104435
  • Riem, M.M. E.; van IJzendoorn, M.H.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2019). Hippocampal volume modulates salivary oxytocin level increases after intranasal oxytocin administration. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 101, 182-185 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.11.015
  • Van ’t Veer, A.E., Thijssen, S., Witteman, J., van IJzendoorn, M.H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2019). Exploring the neural basis for paternal protection: An investigation of the neural response to infants in danger. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, nsz018. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz018
  • Witte, A.M., De Moor, M.H.M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2019). Fathers today: design of a randomized controlled trial examining the role of oxytocin and vasopressin in behavioral and neural responses to infant signals. BMC Psychology 7, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-019-0356-2
  • Witteman, J., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Rilling, J.K., Bos, P.A., Schiller, N.O., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2019). Towards a neural model of infant cry perception. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 99, 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.026
  • Thijssen, S., Van ‘t Veer, A. E., Witteman, J., Meijer, W.M., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2018). Effects of vasopressin on neural processing of infant crying in expectant fathers. Hormones and Behavior, 103, 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.05.014
  • Verhees, M., Houben, J., Ceulemans, E., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., van IJzendoorn, M.H., & Bosmans, G. (2018). No side-effects of single intranasal oxytocin administration in middle childhood. Psychopharmacology, 235, 8, 2471-2477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-4945-1
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., & Van IJzendoorn, M.H. (2017). Protective Parenting: Neurobiological and behavioral dimensions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 45-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.001
  • Feldman, R. & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2017). Oxytocin: a parenting hormone. Current Opinion in Psychology  15:13–18
  • Voorthuis A., Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J. & Van IJzendoorn M.H. (2017), Testosterone reactivity to infant crying and caregiving in women: The role of oral contraceptives and basal cortisol. Infant Behavior & Development, 55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.08.002
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., (2013). Sniffing around oxytocin: review and meta-analyses of trials in healthy and clinical groups with implications for pharmacotherapy. Translational Psychiatry, 3 e258. DOI:10.1038/tp.2013.34
  • Riem, M.M.E., Voorthuis, A., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., & Van IJzendoorn, M.H. (2014). Pity or peanuts? Oxytocin induces different neural responses to the same infant crying labeled as sick or bored. Developmental Science, 17, 248-256. DOI: 10.1111/desc12103.
  • Riem, M.M.E, Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Tops, M., Boksem, M.A.S., Rombouts S.A.R.B., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2012). No laughing matter: Intranasal oxytocin administration changes functional brain connectivity during exposure to infant laughter. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 1257–1266. DOI:10.1038/npp.2011.313
  • Naber, F.B.A., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Deschamps, P., Van Engeland, H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2010). Intranasal oxytocin increases fathers’ observed responsiveness during play with their children: a double-blind within-subject experiment. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 1583-1586. DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.04.007